Drawing Funds from the European Union Essays

Drawing Funds from the European Union Essays Drawing Funds from the European Union Essay Drawing Funds from the European Union Essay Pulling Fundss from the European Union Introduction European Union financess are an instrument for implementing its economic and societal coherence policies whose aim is to extinguish the disparities in development degrees amongst the EU member provinces and the comparative crudeness of the most deprived provinces. The EU financess provide support for a broad scope of undertakings covering countries such as urban and regional development. employment and societal inclusion. The financess besides cover agricultural and rural development. maritime developments. invention and research ventures. and human-centered assistance. It means that municipalities. concerns. ministries. non-profit organisations. larning establishments. the conveyance industry. and research establishments are eligible to use for the financess. Management of Fundss Support. the exclusive intent of the EU financess. is supervised in conformity with a set strict regulations to guarantee that there is entire control over how to pass the financess ; in a transparent and accountable mode. Twenty-eight EU commissioners have the unequivocal duty of guaranting that donees use the financess consequently. Nonetheless. executing cheques and one-year audits is a duty that lies with the national authoritiess. It is because the financess are largely managed within the beneficiary provinces. Management of 76 per centum of the whole EU budget happens in coaction with province and regional governments via a system of shared direction. Allotment of Fundss The EU provides financess from five classs: The European Regional Development Fund ( ERDF ) . European Social Fund ( ESF ) . Coherence Fund ( CF ) . European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development ( EAFRD ) . The European Maritime and Fisheries Fund ( EMFF ) . These major financess are referred to as Structural Funds. There are other financess that the EU manages straight. These other financess are normally in the signifier of grants and contracts. There is a common false belief that money from Brussels’ is available for free and for any intent. Reality check proves it otherwise because grants from the EU are normally made available for back uping specific aims. A large ball of the financess is non given to donees straight. but through province and regional governments who are responsible for crystalline direction of the financess ( Council. 2007 ) . The European Regional Development Fund ( ERDF ) : The purpose of the ERDF is beef uping economic and societal coherence in the EU through seting instabilities amongst its parts. The ERDF normally centers its attending on some cardinal precedence countries known as thematic concentration’ : Low-carbon economic system Research and invention Helping little and moderate-sized endeavors ( SMEs ) and The digital docket The resource allotment to the precedences normally depends on the class of the part in inquiry. More developed parts focus at least 80 per centum of these financess on at least two of these precedences. Transition regions’ focal point is for 60 per centum of the financess and 50 per centum for less developed parts. Additionally. some of the ERDF resources are directed specifically towards low-carbon economic system undertakings ; twenty per centum for more developed parts. 15 per centum for passage parts and twelve per centum for less developed parts. The ERDF besides gives particular attending to specific territorial properties. Disadvantaged countries from a geographical point of position. for illustration. cragged or sparsely populated countries. addition from this particular intervention. The European Social Fund ( ESF ) : The most of import focal point of the ESF is bettering the occupation market and instruction chances across member provinces of the European Union. Bettering the societal positions of vulnerable people is besides an of import purpose for the fund. The earmarking of more than ˆ80 billion for investing in human capital in EU member provinces for the period 2014-2020 attests to it. Other aims of the fund include: retraining unemployed people. get downing particular programmes for the handicapped and other disadvantaged groups of citizens. In add-on: back uping freelance people who are merely get downing their concerns. developing employment service establishments and bettering the quality of instruction in larning establishments. Coherence Fund ( CF ) : The CF is largely aimed at member provinces whose Gross National Income ( GNI ) per dweller is less than 90 % of that of EU’s norm. Its chief purpose is to minimise societal and economic disparities and advancing sustainable development. The CF is besides capable to the same ordinances as the ERDF and ESF via the Common Provisions Regulation. For the programming period. 2014-2020. the CF concerns provinces such as the Czech Republic. Croatia. Latvia. Malta. Hungary. Slovakia and Slovenia. The CF allocates about ˆ63. 4 billion to assorted economic and societal public assistance undertakings. The Cohesion Fund is used to fund trans-European conveyance webs particularly those identified as precedences by the EU. The financess can to boot be used to fund environment-friendly undertakings. These undertakings include those that benefit the environment in footings of renewable energy. back uping an inter-modality. and energy efficiency. If audits reveal th at a member province has inordinate public shortage and they are non taking stairss to decide the state of affairs. the Cohesion Fund can be suspended by a Council Decision. The European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development ( EAFRD ) : The EAFRD screens ; bio-energy. organic agriculture. forest resources. nutrient safety. carnal public assistance. works wellness and rural development programmes ( RDPs ) . The EU requires its member provinces to construct their RDPs upon non less than six set EU precedences. They include: Advancing cognition transportation and invention in the agricultural sector. forestry and rural countries. Bettering the viability of all types of agribusiness. and backing advanced agriculture engineerings and sustainable forest direction. Encouraging nutrient concatenation organisation. direction of hazard in agribusiness and animate being public assistance. Protecting and developing ecosystems allied to agriculture and forestry. Switching towards a low-carbon and climate-conscious economic system in the nutrient and agribusiness sectors. Each RDP identifies focus countries to put quantified marks for financess needed. Measures to accomplish these marks and their single fund allotments are paramount. RDPs’ besides gets funding from private sectors that portion the same political orientations. The execution of financess is monitored and evaluated in item. European Maritime and Fisheries Fund ( EMFF ) : The EMFF. once European Fisheries Fund ( EFF ) . is used to fund the Common Fisheries Policy ( CFP ) . The EMFF gives support for the fishing industry and communities in the coastal parts. The CFP enterprises to do certain that fishing and aquaculture are sustainable ; environmentally. economically and socially. Healthy fish and seafood is besides paramount. Though of import to maximise gimmicks for concern intents. bounds must be put in topographic point. The CFP stipulates that bounds should be set such that fish stocks are sustainable in the long-run. The CFP allows EU member provinces entree to its Waterss and angling evidences. To heighten transparence in support. the European Transparency Initiative was set up. A cardinal web portal was created to roll up and demo informations from all donees of EU support ; financess received and how the financess are being used. There is besides an stock list of EU support that shows the ratings done and released by the Evaluation Services of all Twenty-five EU member provinces. Using for Funding in Selected Areas Enterprise: little and moderate-sized endeavors ( SMEs ) can obtain funding via grants. loans and warrants. It is largely through fiscal mediators in their member provinces. Grants normally account for 50 per centum of undertaking costs. Lend warrants are given to microcredit organisations for loans of up to ˆ25. 000. Non-profit organisations: they include non-governmental and civil society organisations. These organisations are eligible for support every bit long as they are active in EU policy parts and a purely non-profit footing ( Council. 2007 ) . Young people: they are eligible for two types of support ; instruction and preparation. and youth support. The former includes survey chances through Erasmus+ . scholarships for high school alumnuss. and occupational preparation in other states. The latter includes co-funding young person undertakings that encourage civic engagement. charity work and a broad multicultural mentality. Research workers: persons and establishments involved in invention and research undertakings are qualified to bespeak for the financess. The European Union will supply approximately ˆ80 billion in its quest to fund research. The support typically takes the signifier of grants to finance partially a broad scope of research and invention undertakings. Agribusiness and piscaries: geting financess for such undertakings involves giving a general debut. showing fiscal studies. and giving information on the planned usage of the financess. Direct support is the most of import and common type of support in the EU member provinces. Cultural and audiovisual sector: the chief programme in this section is civilization: it has three chief ends. They include advancing cross-border mobility of people working in the cultural sector. encouraging circulation of cultural. artistic end product. and furthering intercultural duologue ( Evans A ; Foord. 1999 ) . Energy: support is available for a figure of sectors including solar and wind energies. bioenergy. renewable energy. clean coal undertakings and energy efficiency. Fundss are besides available for Trans-European Energy Networks ( TEN-E ) . whose purpose is to heighten transit webs for electricity and gas across the European member provinces. The structural financess and grants from the European Union Fundss have impacted the lives of the citizens of its member provinces vastly. The criterions of life of many citizens have risen perceptibly due to the array of new employment chances created by the funds’ undertakings. Some of the projects’ success narratives are notable and have had a great impact to provinces and persons. We will take a expression at some illustrations of undertakings carried out utilizing the financess so as to take note of their effects to their donees. ESF in the Czech Republic The Czech Republic is among the less affluent states in the European Union member provinces. Harmonizing to ordinances. Czech could hold drawn about ˆ26. 7 billion from the ESF in the programming period 2007-2013 in order to raise the criterions of life of its people. However. the sum received from the ESF for that period is ˆ3. 8 billion. Together with national support. the tally adds up to over ˆ4. 4 billion. ESF financess aid in three activities. The first is progressing instruction at all degrees and heightening its relevancy to the occupation market. Second. the financess are used to enable many people to acquire employment. particularly the disadvantaged. Last. they have helped construct fight of the Prague part. The Czech Republic is utilizing the financess to make away with obstructions that ; for one ground or another. prevent people from acquiring a occupation. These people include ; female parents with immature kids. older people. and the handicapped and deprived groups. like those with small or no professional accomplishments. Many ESF undertakings across the state are doing entree to preparation installations easier and cut downing some practical obstructions to work. Consequently. this is conveying a positive impact by raising its citizens out of poorness ( Fagan. 2005 ) . ESF support is besides assisting better the quality of instruction by size uping criterions. using more competent instructors. and learning occupation searchers merely the needed accomplishments by employers. Events such as scientific discipline docudrama movie festivals and meetings with top Czech scientists are being used as platforms to promote pupils to see callings in scientific discipline and engineering. Just like other member provinces. the Czech Republic is fighting with the unemployment crisis. The ESF fund. nevertheless. has gone a long manner in assisting Czech citizens find occupations attributed to the assorted employment and educational undertakings initiated by the financess. Salvaging Lifes: EU Funded Cancer Research Project Doctors largely wait for several months to measure whether malignant neoplastic disease interventions that they are administrating to their patients are really working. By detecting a new technique that rapidly reveals a tumour by look intoing ingestion of glucose. an EU-funded undertaking has reduced the hold. This find enables physicians to acquire more precious’ clip to exchange to more effectual signifiers of intervention if important ; potentially salvaging many lives. All malignant neoplastic disease interventions do non work in every patient’s instance. A tumour might cut down quickly after a intervention. yet its appraisal is complex. Several therapies may extinguish the malignant neoplastic disease without cut downing the size of the tumour. A hold in verification by a physician may intend that by the following intervention. the patient may be a batch weaker. and the malignant neoplastic disease advanced farther ( Eckhouse A ; Sullivan. 2006 ) . Physicians want to measure instantly if the malignant neoplastic disease is affected by a intervention. non merely by mensurating its size but through metabolic indexs. The EU-funded undertaking. Imaging Lymphoma. has developed such an appraisal. The invention will be of import in future malignant neoplastic disease interventions as it makes it easier for physicians to handle their patients. Turning Food Waste into Animal Feed The European Union is the beginning of 18 % of nutrient exports worldwide and with it comes a immense ball of agricultural waste. This waste costs husbandmans and taxpayers’ money ( Kraemer. Wilkinson. Klasing A ; Homeyer. 2002 ) . An EU-funded research undertaking NOSHAN wants to change over nutrient waste into carnal provender. The aim of the research is to open up new chances for husbandmans and cut downing Europe’s dependance on animate being provender imports. Additionally. new green occupations in agricultural waste aggregation and provender fabrication will be created. The NOSHAN undertaking aims peculiarly at turning fruits. veggies and dairy wastes into carnal provender. and at low energy costs. The undertaking is expected to reason its research in 2016. and by that clip. the research squad will be able to hold the best waste extraction and upgrading techniques. The NOSHAN undertaking presents Europe’s agricultural sector with a chance of achieving greater agricultural sustainability. The undertaking has been awarded merely under ˆ3 million in the programming period 2007-2013. It brings together a University. little and moderate-sized endeavors ( SMEs ) . research institutes and other industries. The NOSHAN undertaking could besides cut down the ever-increasing competition between nutrient and provender sectors. both of which require H2O and land ( Wolz. Hubbard. Mollers. Gorton A ; Buchenrieder. 2012 ) . Revolutionizing the Transport Sector EU-funded research workers have come up with groundbreaking proposals to forestall railroad self-destructions and lessening break of services. If adopted. the proposals could salvage lives. money and clip for railroad companies and their riders. Waiting for a train. and all of a sudden the service is called off or detain indefinitely is something that train riders have become accustomed to in the long tally. Possibly an accident ; person fell onto the path. or they purposefully stepped in forepart of the path. The EU-funded undertaking. RESTRAIL. collected and analyzed the steps put in topographic point by different EU member provinces to control self-destructions and inadvertent deceases. The result of the research was that proposals that can salvage a batch of lives. Decision shapers such as station directors or railroad companies should hold a set of the most efficient extenuation steps for every event. The trials they have conducted have created a tool chest for audience on the best patterns on each state. RESTRAIL guidelines could assist cut down direct and indirect costs linked to railway self-destructions and accidents. ESF Fund in Slovakia Slovakia is one of the fastest turning economic systems in the EU. but it faces several challenges such as high long-run unemployment degrees. However. Slovakia plans to increase the country’s employment rate to 72 % by 2020. Slovakia has received ˆ1. 5 billion ESF support for the period ended 2007-2013. In combination with national co-funding. they have raised a sum of ˆ1. 76 billion. A assortment of projects’ is being supported via the support. Public employment installations and services are being improved so as to make as many Slovaks as possible. Since 2007-2011. about 24. 000 employment chances have been created and around 26. 000 people have found employment via ESF supported steps. Undertakings are besides being implemented in the signifier of flood-dependence-programmes that offer up to 4. 500 new occupations in 200 small towns. ESF support is assisting reform the instruction system in Slovakia by guaranting that instruction is tailored to aline with the germinating demands of the society. An illustration is a undertaking that investigates the involvements of immature people and lucifers them to career counsel. ESF funded undertakings are easing the constitution of life-long-learning civilization that natures accomplishments of the Slovak citizens throughout their lives. For case. a Slovak packaging company has used ESF funding to ease professional preparation of new accomplishments. such as in quality and environmental criterions. doing them more adaptable and good equipped for their hereafter callings. The Roma people in Slovakia tend to populate in unintegrated colonies and are more open to long-run unemployment compared to the mean population. and besides live in conditions of poorness. Thankss to ESF support. societal workers and helpers have been employed to work closely with them to assist better their fortunes ( Guy A ; Kovats 2006 ) . Reverses and Doubts on the efficient usage of EU Fundss One of the jobs with EU financess is that in some instances. the money is allocated to undertakings that are neither necessary nor productive ( Sumpikova . Pavel A ; Klazar. 2004 ) . For case. if a small town wants to mend pavements in its part and would wish to utilize EU support for it. it is imperative that they formulate a back uping narrative. Let’s say. enlargement of regional touristry. It means that. in add-on to mending the pavement. the money will besides be spent to set up some marks with a map of village’s streets. which in the first topographic point is non necessary. Some smart small towns can even utilize the financess to restitute an old library and rename it to the Tourist Information Center. and stow some booklets at that place. in instance some tourers do demo up. Another quandary is distortion of industrial and consumer environment. When a house receives funding to construct. state. a food market shop. its neighbours who have the similar concern programs receive nil. A farther job is that national ministries of some provinces like say. Slovakia. are loath to depute control of EU financess to take down administration degrees. The cardinal authoritiess do non swear the ability of their municipalities and regional governments to implement the financess seasonably and efficaciously. There have been instances where regional governments have mixed execution of policies. to state the least. Nevertheless. Slovakia has non been able to make any efficient mechanisms for decision-making and direction of public financess ( Guy A ; Kovats. 2006 ) . Decision Fundss drawn from the European Union have increased employment chances. bolstered the instruction sectors of donees and led to the growing of economic systems. Additionally. funding the conveyance sector. research and invention undertakings have led to groundbreaking finds in the agricultural. wellness and conveyance sectors among others. The figure of lives saved and projected to salvage by some of these finds is astonishing. However. the support has non been without a few contentions. Some parties have tried to take advantage of corrupt functionaries to leverage some money for themselves taking to misapply and project of doubtful undertakings. An honorable civilization should be created to guarantee appropriate usage of financess. The European Union support end is to guarantee that donees spend money in a transparent. accountable mode. It is therefore the responsibility of all donees to do it a world. Mentions Council. T. R. D. ( 2007 ) . European Union Funding. Eckhouse. S. . A ; Sullivan. R. ( 2006 ) . A study of public support of malignant neoplastic disease research in the European Union. PLoS Medicine. 3 ( 7 ) . e267. Evans. G. . A ; Foord. J. ( 1999 ) . European support of civilization: promoting common civilization or regional growing? . Cultural Trends. 9 ( 36 ) . 53-87. Fagan. A. ( 2005 ) . Taking stock of civil-society development in post-communist Europe: Evidence from the Czech Republic. Democratization. 12 ( 4 ) . 528-547. Guy. W. . A ; Kovats. M. ( 2006 ) . EU-funded Roma programmes: Lessons from Hungary. Slovakia and the Czech Republic. London: Minority Rights Group International. Kraemer. R. A. . Wilkinson. D. G. . Klasing. A. . A ; von Homeyer. I. ( 2002 ) . EU Environmental Governance: A Benchmark of Policy Instruments. With a focal point on Agriculture. Energy and Transport. Study commissioned by the Belgian Federal Department of the Environment. No. ECOLOGIC. Berlin. Sumpikova . M. . Pavel. J. . A ; Klazar. S. ( 2004. May ) . EU financess: soaking up capacity and effectivity of their usage. with focal point on regional degree in the Czech Republic. In Conference proceedings of the 12 Thursday NISPAcee Conference. Wolz. A. . Hubbard. C. . Mollers. J. . Gorton. M. . A ; Buchenrieder. G. ( 2012 ) . Patterns behind rural success narratives in the European Union: Major lessons of former expansions ( No. 68 ) . Studies on the agricultural and nutrient sector in Central and Eastern Europe. Beginning papers

Astronomers Count Galaxies in the Cosmos

Astronomers Count Galaxies in the Cosmos How many galaxies are there in the cosmos? Thousands? Millions? More? Those are questions that astronomers revisit every few years. Periodically they count galaxies using sophisticated telescopes and techniques. Each time they do a new galactic census, they find more of these stellar cities than they did before. So, how many are there? It turns out that, thanks to some work done using Hubble Space Telescope, there are billions and billions of them. There could be up to 2 trillion...and counting. In fact, the universe is more vast than astronomers thought, too. The idea of billions and billions of galaxies may make the universe sound much bigger and more populated than ever. But, the more interesting news here is that there are fewer galaxies today than there were in the early universe. Which seems rather odd. What happened to the rest? The answer lies in the term merger. Over time, galaxies formed and merged with each other to form larger ones. So, the many galaxies we see today are what we have left after billions of years of evolution. The History of Galaxy Counts Back at the turn of the 19th century into the 20th, astronomers thought there was only one galaxy - our Milky Way - and that it was the entirety of the universe. They saw other odd, nebulous things in the sky that they called spiral nebulae, but it never occurred to them that these might be very distant galaxies. That all changed in the 1920s, when astronomer Edwin Hubble, using work done on calculating distances to stars using variable stars by astronomer Henrietta Leavitt, found a star that lay in a distant spiral nebula. It was farther away than any star in our own galaxy. That observation told him that the spiral nebula, which we know today as the Andromeda Galaxy, was not part of our own Milky Way. It was another galaxy. With that momentous observation, the number of known galaxies doubled to two. Astronomers were off to the races finding more and more galaxies.   Today, astronomers see galaxies as far as their telescopes  can see. Every part of the distant universe seems to be chock full of galaxies. They show up in all shapes, from irregular globs of light to spirals and ellipticals. As they study galaxies, astronomers have traced the ways they have formed and evolved. Theyve seen how galaxies merge, and what happens when they do. And, they know that our own Milky Way and Andromeda will merge in the distant future.  Each time they learn something new, whether its about our galaxy or some distant one, it adds to their understanding of how these large-scale structures behave. Galaxy Census Since Hubbles time, astronomers have found many other galaxies as their telescopes got better and better. Periodically they would take a census of galaxies. The latest census work, done by Hubble Space Telescope and other observatories, continues to identify more galaxies at greater distances. As find more of these stellar cities, astronomers get a better idea of how they form, merge, and evolve. However, even as they find evidence of more galaxies, it turns out that astronomers can only see about 10 percent of the galaxies they know are out there. Whats going on with that? Many more galaxies that cant be seen or detected with present-day telescopes and techniques. An astonishing 90 percent of the galaxy census falls into this unseen category. Eventually, they will be seen, with telescopes such as the James Webb Space Telescope, which will be able to detect their light (which turns out to be ultra-faint and much of it in the infrared portion of the spectrum). Fewer Galaxies Means Less to Light up Space So, while the universe has at least 2 trillion galaxies, the fact that it used to have MORE galaxies in the early days may also explain one of the most intriguing questions asked by astronomers: if theres so much light in the universe, why is the sky dark at night? This is known as Olbers Paradox (named for the German astronomer Heinrich Olbers, who first posed the question). The answer may well be because of those missing galaxies. Starlight from the most distant and oldest galaxies may well be invisible to our eyes for a variety of reasons, including the reddening of light due to the expansion of space, the universe’s dynamic nature, and the absorption of light by intergalactic dust and gas. If you combine these factors with other processes that reduce our ability to see visible and ultraviolet (and infrared) light from the most distant galaxies, these could all provide the answer to why we see a dark sky at night. The study of galaxies continues, and in the next few decades, its likely that astronomers will revise their census of these behemoths yet again.

INTRODUCTION TO QUANTITATIVE MANAGEMENT Lab Report

INTRODUCTION TO QUANTITATIVE MANAGEMENT - Lab Report Example otal profit that can be obtained while satisfying the constraints (in this case maximum benefit of 710) gave 26 for moulding, 14 for trimming and 13 for packaging. However, these values gave a profit of 705 which is less by 5. What this means is that an increase in either of the tree variables will give a gain value that is way above the limit that the company has in stored for the items (710). Therefore, the optimal values that the manufacturing can order and make optimal profit while satisfying the constraints is 26, 14, and 13 for moulding, trimming, and packaging respectively. Besides, the maximum amount of time that each component of moulding can take is represented in the above table. From the solver output, it is apparent that the production time remained. The maximum production time utilised in the manufacture was less from the total allocated time by 2500, 1700, and 300 for moulding, trimming, and packaging respectively. The remaining time could not be accounted for because any change in any of the three variables resulted in higher increase in the total amount of time allocated for each component. Therefore, the entire time was not utilised to obtain maximum production while satisfying the constraints of the equation. The result given by the solver is the optimal selection for each component that gives a maximum profit. One would argue that since the amount of resources available was not fully utilised its sensitivity was not 100%. However, it is apparent that the sensitivity for this selection was (705 / 710) * 100= 99.2%. Though this sensitivity is not perfect, it is relatively high and appropriate. Therefore, the choice of each component given by the solver is sensitive as per the requirement to satisfy the constraints. Selection of parameters that satisfy constraints at 99% is a better option than a percentage lower because such selection should not exceed the available resource. For this reason, these values were the optimal and maximal choice

Budgeting Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Budgeting - Coursework Example This is because from fifth month Nod will have sufficient cash not only to meet regular cash payments but also Nod will have sufficient cash to return the overdraft. The consideration is also required for capital expenditure that Nod is planning to incur in the beginning of 2nd year. The cost of car is $15000. Nod will generate $3000 on selling an old car and the rest ?12000 will be easily generated out of operation in next six months. This is because cash by the end of September 2011 after paying overdraft of say $800 will be $13150. Each month enough extra cash will be generated to meet $15000 cost easily. Accordingly Nod is advised to negotiate only for an overdraft of $800 in April for a period of four months. Word count: 221 d) Budgeting and business goals Budgeting has become an essential function of any business activity so much in the sense that it becomes easy to attain the purposes for which the business activity is planned for. In fact management plans to achieve several g oals when budgeting is under taken for a business activity. Under normal circumstances budgets are used for the purposes of attaining control and evaluation, communication with different concerned parties, planning, and motivation of the factors involved in the business process. â€Å"Goal setting is a characteristic of successful business and a budget is a critical part of the process. It is a financial forecast of your operating and capital activities.†(Carol Patterson)i Operating budgets are used for planning the operations to achieve strategic objectives. Operating budget draws the attention of the management toward revenue projections and regular and routine expenditure to raise that projected revenue. The management can set up goals of earning specific revenue in order to meet the required payments for the generation of that revenue and improve the entity’s liquidity to meet unforeseen expenditure and payments. In fact operating budget force the management to pla n for increasing profitability as there is direct relation between economising of the business expenditure and profitability. The main goal of planning and control is always achieved through efficient budgeting. â€Å"The budgeting system is designed to plan and control a business. However, it is common for the budget to be ‘gamed’ by its participants. For example managers may pad their budgets with excess resources. In this way, managers will have additional resources for unexpected events during the period. If the budget is being used to establish the incentive plan, then sales managers have incentives to understate the sales potential of a territory to ensure hitting their quota.†(Carl S Warren, James M. Reeve, and Jonathan Duchac)ii That way revenue or operating budget can be made objectives to be achieved by the operational staff. Incentives when linked with budgets automatically create sort of enthusiasm among the operating staff to achieve budgetary target s or goals. It is believed that businesses should always create and apply budgets in order to keep a check or track of their income and expenses. This is more applicable for small business and operations. Budgeting helps the businesses to project their profitability to be achieved over a period covered by the budget. Budgeting can spot problems and plan in advance the means to rectify those problems and issues. In a way financial

al capone Essay -- essays research papers

Organized crime was not so organized up until the 1920s. When the 1920s arrived, the American lifestyle changed dramatically. People started investing money in home appliances and automobiles, women’s skirts became higher and drinking became very popular. Also, organized crime came to a rise in the 1920’s. And in the high ranks of organized crime was Al Capone. Al Capone ran many illegal businesses including bootlegging, gambling, prostitution, and murders. There were many gangs in the world of organized crime and Al Capone’s was at the top. Al Capone was the most infamous gangster in the 1920’s. Being a big time gangster was big business. Money was made fast and very easily. Bootlegging alcohol was by far the most profitable in the 1920’s, this was because of the prohibition. Gambling was another business that paid off. Gambling stations were set up all over cities. Prostitution and Murders were also crimes that made gangsters money. Alphonse Capone was the biggest force in organized crime. He started his career of crime in Boston, as an apprentice to Johnny Torrio. That is where he earned the unforgettable nickname â€Å"Scarface.† It was in a bar when Capone made some rude comments about a woman. Minutes later, the woman’s brother sliced Capone in the face. D. VanGorder 2 This man was a friend of Charles â€Å"Lucky† Luciano. Al Capone was punished and forced to apologize. Al Capone did not become a leader until he went to Chicago. At the time he was still an apprentice to Johnny Torrio. In the midst of the gang violence and bootlegging was Chicago. Chicago was a great place to start a ring of organized crime. The government was very weak which made it easier to do crime. Capone entered the city of Chicago in 1920. At the time, â€Å"Big Jim† Colosimo ran things. He made about 50,000 dollars a month. Torrio and Capone started their business with four gambling joints/whore houses in Chicago. These underground places were known as deuces. In Chicago Capone met a man who would be his friend for life, Jack Guzik. Guzik was Jewish. His family lived off prostitution. Al Capone never worried about racial issues, his wife was even Irish. After Jack Guzick was roughed up by a Joe Howard, Capone let out his temper. It did not help when Howard called Capone some rude names. Soon after, Capone shot him down. There was no conviction, it was clear that Capone was becoming more... ...n Capone was showing his superiority. As Alva Johnston said in the New Yorker D. VanGorder 6 â€Å"Chicago is the imperial city of the gang world and New York a remote provincial place.† The incident was known as The Adonis club massacre. Prohibition may have caused the highest crime rate ever in organized crime. Frankie yale was a longtime friend of Al Capone and Johnny Torrio. He was used in various hits including the murders of Dion O’banion and â€Å"Big Jim† Colosimo. In 1928 Capone found out that Yale had been hijacking many of his â€Å"booze† trucks. Soon after, Yale was shot down. No other single gangster could be as infamous as Al Capone. Al Capone was the most powerful gangster to ever live. No one could stop his reign of crime, and anyone that got in his way, he would take out, Even when it came to his friends. He was never convicted for any of the hundreds of crimes he committed, this is one of the most important facts that showed how many connections Capone had. It was until the 1930’s when Capone was convicted of Tax invasion. While serving his jail time Alphonse Capone became a victim of the deadly disease Syphilis. Al Capone died but his crime legacy will always live on.

Microprocessor and Interfacing Essay

Peripherals and Interfacing PIO 8255 The parallel input-output port chip 8255 is also called as programmable peripheral input-output port. The Intel’s 8255 is designed for use with Intel’s 8-bit, 16-bit and higher capability microprocessors. It has 24 input/output lines which may be individually programmed in two groups of twelve lines each, or three groups of eight lines. The two groups of I/O pins are named as Group A and Group B. Each of these two groups contains a subgroup of eight I/O lines called as 8-bit port and another subgroup of four lines or a 4-bit port. Thus Group A contains an 8-bit port A along with a 4-bit port. C upper. PIO 8255 †¢ The port A lines are identified by symbols PA0-PA7 while the port C lines are identified as PC4-PC7. Similarly, GroupB contains an 8-bit port B, containing lines PB0-PB7 and 4-bit port C with lower bits PC0- PC3. The port C upper and port C lower can be used in combination as an 8-bitport C. †¢ Both the port C are assigned the same address. Thus one may have either three 8-bit I/O ports or two 8-bit and two 4-bit ports from 8255. All of these ports can function independently either as input or as output ports. This can be achieved by programming the bits of an internal register of 8255 called as control word register ( CWR ). PIO 8255 †¢ The internal block diagram and the pin configuration of 8255 are shown in fig. †¢ The 8-bit data bus buffer is controlled by the read/write control logic. The read/write control logic manages all of the internal and external transfers of both data and control words. †¢ RD, WR, A1, A0 and RESET are the inputs provided by the microprocessor to the READ/ WRITE control logic of 8255. The 8-bit, 3-state bidirectional buffer is used to interface the 8255 internal data bus with the external system data bus. PIO 8255 †¢ This buffer receives or transmits data upon the execution of input or output instructions by the microprocessor. The control words or status information is also transferred through the buffer. †¢ The signal description of 8255 are briefly presented as follows : †¢ PA7-PA0: These are eight port A lines that acts as either latched output or buffered input lines depending upon the control word loaded into the control word register. †¢ PC7-PC4 : Upper nibble of port C lines. They may act as either output latches or input buffers lines. PIO 8255 This port also can be used for generation of handshake lines in mode 1 or mode 2. †¢ PC3-PC0 : These are the lower port C lines, other details are the same as PC7-PC4 lines. †¢ PB0-PB7 : These are the eight port B lines which are used as latched output lines or buffered input lines in the same way as port A. †¢ RD : This is the input line driven by the microprocessor and should be low to indicate read operation to 8255. †¢ WR : This is an input line driven by the microprocessor. A low on this line indicates write operation. PIO 8255 †¢ CS : This is a chip select line. If this line goes low, it enables the 8255 to respond to RD and WR signals, otherwise RD and WR signal are neglected. †¢ A1-A0 : These are the address input lines and are driven by the microprocessor. These lines A1-A0 with RD, WR and CS from the following operations for 8255. These address lines are used for addressing any one of the four registers, i. e. three ports and a control word register as given in table below. †¢ In case of 8086 systems, if the 8255 is to be interfaced with lower order data bus, the A0 and A1 pins of 8255 are connected with A1 and A2 respectively. RD 0 0 0 0 RD 1 1 1 1 RD X 1 WR 1 1 1 1 WR 0 0 0 0 WR X 1 CS 0 0 0 0 CS 0 0 0 0 CS 1 0 A1 0 0 1 1 A1 0 0 1 1 A1 X X A0 0 1 0 1 A0 0 1 0 1 A0 X X Input (Read) cycle Port A to Data bus Port B to Data bus Port C to Data bus CWR to Data bus Output (Write) cycle Data bus to Port A Data bus to Port B Data bus to Port C Data bus to CWR Function Data bus tristated Data bus tristated Control Word Register PIO 8255. †¢ D0-D7 : These are the data bus lines those carry data or control word to/from the microprocessor. †¢ RESET : A logic high on this line clears the control word register of 8255. All ports are set as input ports by default after reset. Block Diagram of 8255 (Architecture) ( cont.. ) †¢ 1. 2. 3. 4. †¢ It has a 40 pins of 4 groups. Data bus buffer Read Write control logic Group A and Group B controls Port A, B and C Data bus buffer: This is a tristate bidirectional buffer used to interface the 8255 to system databus. Data is transmitted or received by the buffer on execution of input or output instruction by the CPU. Control word and status information are also transferred through this unit. †¢ Block Diagram of 8255 (Architecture) ( cont.. ) Read/Write control logic: This unit accepts control signals ( RD, WR ) and also inputs from address bus and issues commands to individual group of control blocks ( Group A, Group B). †¢ It has the following pins. a) CS – Chipselect : A low on this PIN enables the communication between CPU and 8255. b) RD (Read) – A low on this pin enables the CPU to read the data in the ports or the status word through data bus buffer. †¢ Block Diagram of 8255 (Architecture) ( cont.. ) WR ( Write ) : A low on this pin, the CPU can write data on to the ports or on to the control register through the data bus buffer. ) RESET: A high on this pin clears the control register and all ports are set to the input mode e) A0 and A1 ( Address pins ): These pins in conjunction with RD and WR pins control the selection of one of the 3 ports. †¢ Group A and Group B controls : These block receive control from the CPU and issues commands to their respective ports. c) Block Diagram of 825 5 (Architecture) ( cont.. ) †¢ Group A – PA and PCU ( PC7 -PC4) †¢ Group B – PCL ( PC3 – PC0) †¢ Control word register can only be written into no read operation of the CW register is allowed. a) Port A: This has an 8 bit latched/buffered O/P and 8 bit input latch. It can be programmed in 3 modes – mode 0, mode 1, mode 2. b) Port B: This has an 8 bit latched / buffered O/P and 8 bit input latch. It can be programmed in mode 0, mode1. Block Diagram of 8255 (Architecture). c) Port C : This has an 8 bit latched input buffer and 8 bit out put latched/buffer. This port can be divided into two 4 bit ports and can be used as control signals for port A and port B. it can be programmed in mode 0. Modes of Operation of 8255 (cont.. ) †¢ These are two basic modes of operation of 8255. I/O mode and Bit Set-Reset mode (BSR). †¢ In I/O mode, the 8255 ports work as programmable I/O ports, while in BSR mode only port C (PC0-PC7) can be used to set or reset its individual port bits. †¢ Under the I/O mode of operation, further there are three modes of operation of 8255, so as to support different types of applications, mode 0, mode 1 and mode 2. Modes of Operation of 8255 (cont.. ) †¢ BSR Mode: In this mode any of the 8-bits of port C can be set or reset depending on D0 of the control word. The bit to be set or reset is selected by bit select flags D3, D2 and D 1 of the CWR as given in table. I/O Modes : a) Mode 0 ( Basic I/O mode ): This mode is also called as basic input/output mode. This mode provides simple input and output capabilities using each of the three ports. Data can be simply read from and written to the input and output ports respectively, after appropriate initialisation. D3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 D2 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 D1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 Selected bit s of port C D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 BSR Mode : CWR Format PA 8 2 5 5 PCU PCL PA6 – PA7 PC4 – PC7 PC0-PC3 PB PB0 – PB7 8 2 5 5 PA PCU PCL PB PA PC PB0 – PB7 All Output Port A and Port C acting as O/P. Port B acting as I/P Mode 0 Modes of Operation of 8255 (cont.. ) †¢ 1. The salient features of this mode are as listed below: Two 8-bit ports ( port A and port B )and two 4-bit ports (port C upper and lower ) are available. The two 4-bit ports can be combinedly used as a third 8-bit port. Any port can be used as an input or output port. Output ports are latched. Input ports are not latched. A maximum of four ports are available so that overall 16 I/O configuration are possible. All these modes can be selected by programming a register internal to 8255 known as CWR. 2. 3. 4. †¢ Modes of Operation of 8255 (cont.. †¢ The control word register has two formats. The first format is valid for I/O modes of operation, i. e. modes 0, mode 1 and mode 2 while the second format is valid for bit set/reset (BSR) mode of operation. These formats are shown in following fig. D7 1 D6 X D5 X D4 X D3 D2 D1 D0 0- Reset 0-for BSR mode Bit select flags D3, D2, D1 are from 000 to 111 for bits PC0 TO PC71- Set I/O Mode Control Word Register Format and BSR Mode Control Word Register Format PA3 PA2 PA1 PA0 RD CS GND A1 A0 PC7 PC6 PC5 PC4 PC0 PC1 PC2 PC3 PB0 PB1 PB2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 0 39 38 37 36 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 PA4 PA5 PA6 PA7 WR Reset D0 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 Vcc PB7 PB6 PB5 PB4 PB3 8255A 8255A Pin Configuration = D0-D7 CS RESET 8255A A0 A1 RD PA0-PA7 PC4-PC7 PC0-PC3 PB0-PB7 Vcc WR GND Signals of 8255 3 Group A control 1 D0-D7 Data bus Buffer 8 bit int data bus 4 Group A Port A(8) PA0-PA7 Group A Port C upper(4) Group B Port C Lower(4) PC7-PC4 PC0-PC3 2 RD WR A0 A1 RESET CS Block Diagram of 8255 READ/ WRITE Control Logic Group B control PB7-PB0 Group B Port B(8) D7 D6 D5 Mode for Port A D4 PA D3 PC U D2 Mode for PB D1 PB D0 PC L Mode Set flag 1- active 0- BSR mode Group – A 1 Input PC u 0 Output 1 Input PA 0 Output 00 – mode 0 Mode 01 – mode 1 Select of PA 10 – mode 2 Group – B PCL PB Mode Select 1 Input 0 Output 1 Input 0 Output 0 mode- 0 1 mode- 1 Control Word Format of 8255 Modes of Operation of 8255 (cont.. ) b) Mode 1: ( Strobed input/output mode ) In this mode the handshaking control the input and output action of the specified port. Port C lines PC0-PC2, provide strobe or handshake lines for port B. This group which includes port B and PC0-PC2 is called as group B for Strobed data input/output. Port C lines PC3-PC5 provide strobe lines for port A. This group including port A and PC3-PC5 from group A. Thus port C is utilized for generating handshake signals. The salient features of mode 1 are listed as follows: Modes of Operation of 8255 (cont.. ) 1. 2. 3. 4. Two groups – group A and group B are available for strobed data transfer. Each group contains one 8-bit data I/O port and one 4-bit control/data port. The 8-bit data port can be either used as input and output port. The inputs and outputs both are latched. Out of 8-bit port C, PC0-PC2 are used to generate control signals for port B and PC3-PC5 are used to generate control signals for port A. he lines PC6, PC7 may be used as independent data lines. Modes of Operation of 8255 (cont.. ) †¢ The control signals for both the groups in input and output modes are explained as follows: Input control signal definitions (mode 1 ): †¢ STB( Strobe input ) – If this lines falls to logic low level, the data available at 8-bit input port is loaded into input latche s. †¢ IBF ( Input buffer full ) – If this signal rises to logic 1, it indicates that data has been loaded into latches, i. e. it works as an acknowledgement. IBF is set by a low on STB and is reset by the rising edge of RD input. Modes of Operation of 8255 (cont.. ) †¢ INTR ( Interrupt request ) – This active high output signal can be used to interrupt the CPU whenever an input device requests the service. INTR is set by a high STB pin and a high at IBF pin. INTE is an internal flag that can be controlled by the bit set/reset mode of either PC4 (INTEA) or PC2(INTEB) as shown in fig. †¢ INTR is reset by a falling edge of RD input. Thus an external input device can be request the service of the processor by putting the data on the bus and sending the strobe signal. Modes of Operation of 8255 (cont.. Output control signal definitions (mode 1) : †¢ OBF (Output buffer full ) – This status signal, whenever falls to low, indicates that CPU has written data to the specified output port. The OBF flip-flop will be set by a rising edge of WR signal and reset by a low going edge at the ACK input. †¢ ACK ( Acknowledge input ) – ACK signal acts as an acknowledgement to be given by a n output device. ACK signal, whenever low, informs the CPU that the data transferred by the CPU to the output device through the port is received by the output device. Modes of Operation of 8255 (cont.. ) †¢ INTR ( Interrupt request ) – Thus an output signal that can be used to interrupt the CPU when an output device acknowledges the data received from the CPU. INTR is set when ACK, OBF and INTE are 1. It is reset by a falling edge on WR input. The INTEA and INTEB flags are controlled by the bit set-reset mode of PC 6and PC2 respectively. 1 0 1 0 Input control signal definitions in Mode 1 1/0 X X X 1 X X X X 1 1 X D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 1 – Input 0 – Output For PC6 – PC7 PA0 – PA7 INTEA PC4 PC5 STBA IBFA D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 PB0 – PB7 INTEB PC 2 PC1 STBB IBFB PC3 RD PC6 – PC7 INTRA I/O PC0 INTR A Mode 1 Control Word Group A I/P RD Mode 1 Control Word Group B I/P STB IBF INTR RD DATA from Peripheral Mode 1 Strobed Input Data Transfer WR OBF INTR ACK Data OP to Port Mode 1 Strobed Data Output Output control signal definitions Mode 1 1 0 1 0 1/0 X X X 1 X X X X 1 0 X D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 1 – Input 0 – Output For PC4 – PC5 PA0 – PA7 INTEA PC7 PC6 OBF ACKA D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 PB0 PB7 INTEB PC PC2 1 OBFB ACKB PC3 WR PC4 – PC5 PC0 INTRA I/O INTRB Mode 1 Control Word Group A Mode 1 Control Word Group B Modes of Operation of 8255 (cont.. ) †¢ Mode 2 ( Strobed bidirectional I/O ): This mode of operation of 8255 is also called as strobed bidirectional I/O. This mode of operation provides 8255 with an additional features for communicating with a peripheral device on an 8-bit data bus. Handshaking signals are provided to maintain proper data flow and synchronization between the data transmitter and receiver. The interrupt generation and other functions are similar to mode 1. †¢ In this mode, 8255 is a bidirectional 8-bit port with handshake signals. The RD and WR signals decide whether the 8255 is going to operate as an input port or output port. Modes of Operation of 8255 (cont.. ) †¢ 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The Salient features of Mode 2 of 8255 are listed as follows: The single 8-bit port in group A is available. The 8-bit port is bidirectional and additionally a 5-bit control port is available. Three I/O lines are available at port C. ( PC2 – PC0 ) Inputs and outputs are both latched. The 5-bit control port C (PC3-PC7) is used for generating / accepting handshake signals for the 8-bit data transfer on port A. Modes of Operation of 8255 (cont.. ) †¢ Control signal definitions in mode 2: †¢ INTR – (Interrupt request) As in mode 1, this control signal is active high and is used to interrupt the microprocessor to ask for transfer of the next data byte to/from it. This signal is used for input ( read ) as well as output ( write ) operations. †¢ Control Signals for Output operations: †¢ OBF ( Output buffer full ) – This signal, when falls to low level, indicates that the CPU has written data to port A. Modes of Operation of 8255 (cont.. ) ACK ( Acknowledge ) This control input, when falls to logic low level, acknowledges that the previous data byte is received by the destination and next byte may be sent by the processor. This signal enables the internal tristate buffers to send the next data byte on port A. †¢ INTE1 ( A flag associated with OBF ) This can be controlled by bit set/reset mode with PC6 . †¢ Control signals for input operations : †¢ STB (Strobe input ) A low on this line is used to strobe in the data into the input latches of 8255. Modes of Operation of 8255 (cont.. ) †¢ IBF ( Input buffer full ) When the data is loaded into input buffer, this ignal rises to logic ‘1’. This can be used as an acknowledge that the data has been received by the receiver. †¢ The waveforms in fig show the operation in Mode 2 for output as well as input port. †¢ Note: WR must occur before ACK and STB must be activated before RD. WR OBF INTR ACK STB IBF Data bus RD Mode 2 Bidirectional Data Transfer Data from 8085 Data towards 8255 Modes of Operation of 8255 (cont.. ) †¢ The following fig shows a schematic diagram containing an 8-bit bidirectional port, 5-bit control port and the relation of INTR with the control pins. Port B can either be set to Mode 0 or 1 with port A( Group A ) is in Mode 2. Mode 2 is not available for port B. The following fig shows the control word. †¢ The INTR goes high onl y if either IBF, INTE2, STB and RD go high or OBF, INTE1, ACK and WR go high. The port C can be read to know the status of the peripheral device, in terms of the control signals, using the normal I/O instructions. D7 1 D6 1 D5 X D4 X D3 X D2 1/0 D1 1/0 D0 1/0 1/0 mode Port A mode 2 Port B mode 0-mode 0 1- mode 1 PC2 – PC0 1 – Input 0 – Output Port B 1- I/P 0-O/P Mode 2 control word PC3 PA0-PA7 INTR INTE 1 PC7 PC6 OBF ACK STB IBF 3 I/O INTE 2 RD WR PC4 PC5 Mode 2 pins

Strategic Leadership - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 12 Words: 3715 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/09/19 Category Industry Essay Type Argumentative essay Tags: Development Essay Leadership Essay Did you like this example? Strategic leadership. This assignment critically evaluates leadership theories within a strategic framework by drawing upon literature sources and contrasting different academic perspectives. It will explore the relevance of strategic leadership within a small organization , as it appears that, from an initial review of the literature, that strategic leadership theories are aimed at large, complex, corporate organisations. Recommendations will be made as to whether or not the strategic leadership theories are of relevance to a small organisation and which theories have more relevance than others in this specific organizational context. Leadership The concept of leadership is not new and it has been suggested that it was philosophers from ancient civilisations who first started to examine the definition of leadership (Grint 2001). The oldest known military text The Art of War (circa 400 BC) states: the leader of armies is the arbiter of the peoples fate, the man on whom it depends whether the nation shall be in peace or in peril (Sun (undated)). As early as the fourth century BC Plato believed leadership and the development of leaders to be of fundamental importance (Bass 1990). However, over the last few decades the concept of leadership has been heavily studied and debated; so much so that, for the first-time reader on the subject matter, the definition leadership appears, at first sight, to be intangible. It would appear that every layperson, when asked, instinctively knows what a leader is, but when asked to describe this in detail they falter. Fielder (1987) states that there have been at least 65 definitions of leadership put forward, and Stogdill (1974) argues that there are almost as many definitions as there are commentators. Leadership has been defined by Bennis (1998) as ‘a function of knowing yourself, having a vision that is well communicated, building trust among colleagues, and taking effective action to realize your own lea dership potential’. However, Heifetz argues that there is little chance of ever resolving an all-embracing definition of leadership. This view is supported by Drucker (1996) who argues that ‘the only definition of a leader is someone who has followers’ and Nanus (1997) who states that ‘leadership is like the Abominable Snowman, whose footprints are everywhere but who is nowhere to be seen’. Recent research carried out by the South West Regional Development Agency concludes that ‘Despite recognition of the importance of leadership, there remains a certain mystery as to what leadership actually is or how to define it (Bolden 2004). Everyone has their own intuitive understanding of what leadership is, based on a mixture of experience and learning, which is difficult to capture in a succinct definition. The situation appears to be far more complex than the statement by Maxwell (1998) that ‘leadership is influence nothing more, nothing less’ would have us believe. There does however appear to be some consensus that leadership is not management, and Zaleznik (1977) was one of the first to delineate the differences between leadership and management. He saw a leader as an artist, who uses creativity and intuition to navigate his way through chaos, whilst the manager is seen as a problem solver dependent on rationality and control. The dichotomy between leaders and managers was forcefully established by Bennis and Nanus (1985) who suggest that managers ‘do things right’ whilst leaders do ‘the right thing’. Bennis (1989) went on to draw twelve distinctions between the two groups: Managers Leaders Managers administerLeaders innovate Managers ask how and whenLeaders ask what and why Managers focus on systemsLeaders focus on people Managers do things rightLeaders do the right things Managers maintainLeaders develop Managers rely on controlLeaders inspire trust Managers have a short-t erm perspectiveLeaders have a longer-term perspective Managers accept the status-quoLeaders challenge the status-quo Managers have an eye on the bottom lineLeaders have an eye on the horizon Managers imitateLeaders originate Managers emulate the classic good soldierLeaders are their own person Managers copyLeaders show originality Source: Bennis (1989) Northouse (2004) also saw a distinction between leadership and management and observed that in general terms managers concerned themselves with tasks while leaders concerned themselves with people. Central to most of these distinctions is an orientation towards change. This concept is well represented in the work of Kotter (1990) who concluded that ‘management is about coping with complexity’ whilst ‘leadership, by contrast, is about coping with change’. He proposed that good management brings about a degree of order and consistency to organisational processes and goals, whilst leadership is required for d ynamic change. Strategic Leadership As with the definition of leadership, there is a similar problem when attempting to tie down precisely what strategy is. There are strongly differing opinions on most of the key issues of strategy and the disagreement runs so deep that a common definition of the term ‘strategy’ is illusive (De Wit 2004). This leads to their being little hope of ever being able to define ‘strategic leadership’. However Johnson and Scholes (2001) define strategy as ‘the direction and scope of an organisation over the long-term: which achieves advantage for the organisation through its configuration of resources within a challenging environment, to meet the needs of markets and to fulfil stakeholder expectations’. It could be argued that leadership is inherently about strategy and there is little point in using the term ‘strategic leadership’ yet Hambrick and Pettigrew (2001) note two distinctions between the terms ‘leadership’ and ‘strategic leadership’. First, leadership theory refers to leaders at any level in the organization, whereas strategic leadership theory refers to the study of people at the top of the organization. Second, leadership research focuses particularly on the relationship between leaders and followers. Leadership Theory There are those who view leadership as the consequence of a set of traits or characteristics possessed by ‘leaders’, whilst others view leadership as a social process that emerges from group relationships. Such divergent views will always result in a difference of opinion about the nature of leadership. A number of differing theories on leadership have developed over time. Whilst early theories tend to focus upon the characteristics and behaviours of successful leaders, later theories begin to consider the role of followers and the contextual nature of leadership (Bolden et al. 003). Great Man Theories Based on the belief that leaders are exceptional people, born with innate qualities, destined to lead. The use of the term man was intentional since until the latter part of the twentieth century leadership was thought of as a concept which is primarily male, military and Western. This led to the next school of Trait Theories Trait Theories The lists of traits or qualities associated with leadership exist in abundance and continue to be produced. They draw on virtually all the adjectives in the dictionary which describe some positive or virtuous human attribute, from ambition to zest for life Behaviourist Theories These concentrate on what leaders actually do rather than on their qualities. Different patterns of behaviour are observed and categorised as styles of leadership’. This area has probably attracted most attention from practising managers Situational Leadership This approach sees leadership as specific to the situation in which it is being exercised. For example, wh ilst some situations may require an autocratic style, others may need a more participative approach. It also proposes that there may be differences in required leadership styles at different levels in the same organisation Contingency Theory This is a refinement of the situational viewpoint and focuses on identifying the situational variables which best predict the most appropriate or effective leadership style to fit the particular circumstances Transactional Theory This approach emphasises the importance of the relationship between leader and followers, focusing on the mutual benefits derived from a form of contract through which the leader delivers such things as rewards or recognition in return for the commitment or loyalty of the followers Transformational TheoryThe central concept here is change and the role of leadership in envisioning and implementing the transformation of organisational performance Source: Adapted from Bolden et al (2003) The Trait Approach arose from th e ‘Great Man’ theory as a way of identifying the key characteristics of successful leaders. It was believed that through this approach critical leadership traits could be isolated and that people with such traits could then be recruited, selected, and installed into leadership positions. This approach was common in the military and is still used as a set of criteria to select candidates for commissions (Bolden 2003). In a comprehensive study of leadership traits, Stogdill (1974) found some qualities that appeared more often than others. Stogdill’s Leadership Traits †¢Strong drive for responsibility, †¢Focus on completing the task, Vigour and persistence in pursuit of goals, †¢Venturesomeness and originality in problem-solving, †¢Drive to exercise initiative in social settings, †¢Self-confidence, †¢Sense of personal identity, †¢Willingness to accept consequences of decisions and actions, †¢Readiness to adsorb interpersona l stress, †¢Willingness to tolerate frustration and delay, †¢Ability to influence the behaviour of others, †¢Capacity to structure social systems to the purpose in hand. Source: Stogdill (1974) Despite the extensive research that has been carried out to attempt to roduce a definitive list of leadership traits, consensus has not been reached. After reviewing several studies of leadership characteristics and traits, Northouse (2004) concluded that there was no consistency in what traits were associated with great leaders. It has now been widely accepted that a definitive set of traits will never be identified (Bolden 2004). Wright (1996) has commented that researcher have ‘found no differences between leaders and followers with respect to these characteristics [traits], or even found people who possessed them were less likely to become leaders’. Another significant criticism of trait theories is that they ignore the situational context. In other words, t hey presume that the same traits would work on a battlefield and in the staff room of a school (Sadler 1997). They minimized the impact of the situation (Wright 1996). Another criticism is that theories tend to present a gender bias. When men and women are asked about each others characteristics and leadership qualities, some significant patterns emerge; both tend to have difficulties in seeing women as leaders (Rosener 1997). An alternative to the trait approach was to consider what leaders actually do, rather than their underlying characteristics. Interest in this approach largely arose from work by Douglas McGregor (1960), which proposed that management and leadership style is influenced by the persons’ assumptions about human nature (Bolden 2004). He summarised two contrasting viewpoints of managers in industry: type X Managers have a more negative viewpoint whereas type Y Managers are more positive. McGregor’s X-Y Manager Theory Theory X managers believe tha t: Theory Y managers believe that: †¢The average human being has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it if possible. †¢Because of this human characteristic, most people must be coerced, controlled, directed, or threatened with punishment to get them to put forth adequate effort to achieve organizational objectives. †¢The average human being prefers to be directed, wishes to avoid responsibility, has relatively little ambition, and wants security above all else. The expenditure of physical and mental effort in work is as natural as play or rest, and the average human being, under proper conditions, learns not only to accept but to seek responsibility. †¢People will exercise self-direction and self-control to achieve objectives to which they are committed. †¢The capacity to exercise a relatively high level of imagination, ingenuity, and creativity in the solution of organizational problems is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population, and the intellectual potentialities of the average human being are only partially utilized under the conditions of modern industrial life. Source: McGregor (1960) Although behavioural theories introduced the notion of different leadership styles, which was in advancement from trait theories, they have been criticised because they give little guidance as to what constitutes effective leadership behaviours in different situations. Situational leadership theories take a natural step on from behavioural and style theories, they argue that leaders must constantly evaluates the context in which they operate, depending upon such factors as the people, the task, the organisation and other environmental variables. Fiedler (1964) proposed that there is no single best way to lead; instead the leaders’ style should be selected according to the situation. He went on to distinguish between task orientated managers and relationship orientated managers and noted that they performed differently depending on the incumbent situation. Hersey and Blanchard (1969) also maintained that it was not the leader style which led to effectiveness, but rather the ability of the leader to adapt the style to the needs of their followers. They argue that the development level of the subordinates has the greatest impact on which leadership style is most appropriate, and as the followers develop, the leader will need to adapt their style from directing to coaching, supporting and delegating. However, one of the difficulties of employing these types of theories is that there is a lot of evidence to suggest cultural factors influence the way that people carry out, and respond to, different leadership styles (Northhouse 2004). Some cultures are more individualistic, or value family as against bureaucratic models, or have very different expectations about how people address and talk with each other; all these factors influence the choice of style. Further criticism has been put forward by Bolman and Deal (1997) who state that some contingency theorists ‘focus mainly on the relationship between managers and immediate subordinates, and say little about issues of structure, politics or symbols’. Transactional leadership approach emphasises the importance of the relationship between leader and followers, focusing on the mutual benefits derived from a form of contract through which the leader delivers such things as rewards or recognition in return for the commitment or loyalty of the followers. Transformational leadership, first put forward by Burns (1978), goes beyond transactional leadership; to him, transforming leadership ‘is a relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation that converts followers into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents’ (Burns, 1978). He comments further that ‘[transforming leadership] occurs when one or more persons engage with others in such a way that leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality’. The transformational approach has been widely embraced within all types of organisations as a way of transcending organisational and human limitations and dealing with change (Bolden 2004). It has been contrasted with the more traditional transactional leadership approach, in which the leader obtains loyalty from followers by way of a straightforward exchange of pay and security. Comparison of Transactional and Transformational Leadership Transactional LeadershipTransformational Leadership †¢Builds on man’s need to get a job done and make a living †¢Is preoccupied with power and position, politics and perks †¢Is mired in daily affairs †¢Is short-term and hard data orientated †¢Focuses on tactical issues †¢Relies on human relations to lubricate human interactions †¢Follows and fulfils role expectations by striving to work effectively within current systems †¢Supports structures and systems that reinforce the bottom line, aximise efficiency, and guarantee short-tem profits. †¢Builds on a man’s need for meaning †¢Is preoccupied with purposes and values, morals, and ethics †¢Transcends daily affairs †¢Is orientated toward long-term goals without compromising human values and principles †¢Focuses more on missions and strategies †¢Releases human potential – identifying and developing new talent †¢Designs and redesigns jobs to make them meaningful and challenging †¢Aligns internal structures and systems to reinforce overarching values and goals Source: Covey (1992) Jenkins and Ambrosini (2002) state that transformational leadership theories are well grounded in academic research, based on qualitative interviews with leaders. They go on to say that transformational leadership theories are also wide-ranging in the concept that they cover. However, Tichy and Devanna (1986) argue against this, and state that the d ata has been drawn from the limited subset. It has also been argued that transformational leaders are simply charismatic leaders. There are many other theories of leadership, such as charismatic leadership, servant and team leadership, and distributed leadership. Although the presence of these theories is acknowledged, every one of them warrants a stand-alone essay. Within the confines of this assignment, it is not possible to examine all of the leadership theories that have been postulated over the years while connecting them to an organizational context. Business Context While the importance of strategic leadership for business success seems to be without question, the practical application of leadership theory is less clear. The importance of strategic leadership has been explored by many sources. Hitt and Ireland (2001) states that ‘strategic leadership is a requirement of success’. Furthermore, Bennis and Nanus (1985) argue that leadership plays crucial role in the deployment of an organisations strategic plan. Latterly Hitt and Ireland (2005) go on to say that ‘without affecting strategic leadership, the probability that a firm can achieve superior or even satisfactory performance when confronting the challenges of the global economy will be greatly reduced’. It is certainly true that there is a great deal of money being spent on management and executive education, with approximately $50 billion spent per year on leadership development alone (Raelin, 2004). In a 2003 survey the Financial Times found leading European companies to be spending on average ? 3,336 per participant per year on executive education, and of the topics offered leadership, followed by general management, were the most typical (Financial Times, 2003). The importance of strategic leadership is well documented, but a review of the text indicates that the majority of the theories appear to be aimed at large organisation. However, effective leadership i s equally critical (if not more critical) within small enterprises. O’Regan and Ghobadian (2004) state that, in terms of jobs and wealth creation, small and medium-sized enterprises make a significant contribution to national economies. While Beaver and Jennings (2001) state that leaders of small firms require specific transferable skills, directly related to entrepreneurship, professional management and leadership within the operating environment of the business. Having a well-thought-out strategy is increasingly seen as an important activity for SMEs as well as large firms (Naffziger and Mueller 1999). Many of the leadership theories seem to provide a post-hoc description of leadership qualities. They either attempt to describe what a leader is, or what he/she does rather than focus on the practicalities of leadership which can lead to improved organisational performance. Bolden (2005) states that programmes such as MBAs traditionally seek to develop a range of cognit ive skills and capabilities but place relatively little emphasis on how these can be transferred to the workplace. He goes on to argue that ‘If the practice of leadership is considered as more than just applying a set of principles, then its development demands a more experiential dimension’ (Bolden 2005). The lack of practical focus is summarised by Gosling (2003): ‘It seems much has already been done to define what â€Å"qualities†, â€Å"competencies†, â€Å"standards† should be sought from our leaders but, as the current debate would imply, this has done little to improve the quality of our leaders and leadership other than, perhaps, for specific organisations (those who have gone through the process of developing their own framework)’. The overarching recommendation is to acknowledge the importance of strategic leadership to the progress of a small organization, and develop a leadership framework specific to the organisation. This should be done with an understanding of the plethora of management theories, but must focus on practical application and business improvement. â€Å"Leadership is not taught and leadership is not learned. Leadership is learning. † (Antonacopoulou and Bento 2003). References Antonacopoulou E. P. and Bento R. E. (2003). Methods of learning leadership: taught and experiential. In J. Storey (ed. ) Leadership in Organizations: Current issues and key trends. Routledge. Bass, B. M. (1990) Bass and Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership, New York: The Free Press Beaver, G. Jennings, P. (2001) Human resource development in small firms: the role of managerial competencies, Entrepreneurship and Innovation, June P93-101 Bennis, W. (1998) On Becoming a Leader, London: Arrow Bennis, W. and Nanus, B (1985) Leaders: The Strategies for Taking Charge. New York: Harper and Row. Bolden, R. , Gosling, J. , Marturano, A. Dennison, P. 2003) A Review of Leadership Theory and Competency Frameworks, University of Exeter. Bolden, R. (2004) What is Leadership? , University of Exeter. Bolden, R. (2005) What is Leadership Development? , University of Exeter Bolman, L. G. , Deal, T. E. (1997) Reframing Organizations: Artistry, Choice, and Leadership, Jossey Bass Burns, J. M. (1978) Leadership. Harper Row. De Wit, B. , Meyer, M. (2004) Strategy: Process, Content, Context, Thomson Learning Covey, S. (1992) Principle-Centred Leadership. Simon and Schuster. Drucker, P. F. 1996) Essential Drucker, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd Fiedler, F. E. 1964. A contingency model of leadership effectiveness. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. Berkowitz (ed. ) New York: Academic Press. Fiedler, F. E. and Garcia, J. E. (1987) New Approaches to Effective Leadership, New York: John Wiley Financial Times (2003) Companies still value training. Financial Times, Monday September 8, 2003, Special Report on Business Education. Grint, K. (2001) Leadership: Classical, Contemporary and Criti cal Approaches, Oxford University Press Hambrick, D. , Pettigrew, A. (2001) Upper echelons: Donald Hambrick on executives and strategy. Academy of Management Executive, 15(3): 36–44. Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. (1969) Lifecycle theory of leadership. Training and Development Journal, 23, 26-34 Heifetz, R. A. (1994) Leadership Without Easy Answers, Cambridge, Belknap Press Hitt, M. A. , Ireland, R. D. , Camp, S. M. Sexton, D. L. (2001) Strategic entrepreneurship: entrepreneurial strategies for wealth creation, Strategic Management Journal, Vol 22, p479-492 Hitt, M. A. , Ireland, R. D. 2005) Achieving and maintaining strategic competitiveness in the 21st century: the role of strategic leadership, Academy of Management Executive, Vol 3, p270-287 Jenkins, M. Ambrosini, V. (2002) Strategic Management: a Multi-perspective Approach, Palgrove Johnson, G and Scholes, K. (2001) Exploring Corporate Strategy, Prentice Hall Kotter, J. (1990) ‘What leaders really do’, Ha rvard Business Review, May-June, p103-111. Maxwell, J. C. (1998) The 21 Irrefutable Laws of Leadership: Follow Them and People Will Follow You, Thomas Nelson Publishers McGregor, D. (1960) The Human Side of Enterprise. McGraw Hill. Naffziger, D. W. , Mueller, C. B. (1999), Strategic planning in small businesses: process and content realities, in Proceedings of the 14th Annual USASBE Conference Nanus B. (1997) Leaders: Strategies for Taking Charge, HarperBusiness Northouse, P. G. (2004) Leadership: Theory and Practice (3rd Edition). London: Sage Publications Ltd O’Regan, N. Ghobadian, A. (2004) Testing the homogeneity of SMEs: The impact of size on managerial and organizational processes, European Business Review, Vol 16 p64-79 Raelin, J. (2004) Don’t bother putting leadership into people. Academy of Management Executive, (18), p131-135. Rosener, J. B. ‘Sexual static’ in K. Grint (ed. ) (1997) Leadership. Classical, contemporary and critical approach es, Oxford University Press Stogdill, R. M. (1974) Handbook of Leadership: A Survey of Theory and Research, Free Press Sun Tzu. (Undated) The Art of War, [https://www. chinapage. com/sunzi-e. html ] Tichy, N. and Devanna, M. (1986) Transformational Leadership. Wiley Wright, P. (1996) Managerial Leadership, Routledge Zaleznik, A. (1977) ‘Managers and Leaders: Is there a difference? ’, Harvard Business Review, May-June, 1977 Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Strategic Leadership" essay for you Create order